Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology - 8e - M01 MART5891 08 SE C01, Angielskie [EN](1)
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The resiliency of the human body is
demonstrated by its ability to tolerate a broad
range of environmental conditions.
An Introduction to
Anatomy and Physiology
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1-1
Explain the importance of studying anatomy and physiology.
1-2
Identify basic study skill strategies to use in this course.
1-3
Define anatomy and physiology, describe the origins of
anatomical and physiological terms, and explain the significance
of
Terminologia Anatomica (International Anatomical
Terminology).
1-4
Explain the relationship between anatomy and physiology, and
describe various specialties of each discipline.
1-5
Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the
simplest to the most complex, and identify major components of
each organ system.
1-6
Explain the concept of homeostasis.
1-7
Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are
involved in homeostatic regulation, and explain the significance
of homeostasis.
1-8
Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, body regions,
and relative positions.
1-9
Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and
describe the functions of each.
Clinical Notes
The Visible Human Project p. 7
Homeostasis and Disease p. 13
2
Unit 1
Levels of Organization
An Introduction to Studying the
Human Body
devote considerable time to explaining how the body re-
sponds to normal and abnormal conditions and maintains
homeostasis, a relatively constant internal environment. As
we proceed, you will see how your body copes with injury,
disease, or anything that threatens homeostasis.
Anatomy is considered the oldest medical science. Egyp-
tian drawings from 1600 BCE illustrating basic knowledge of
blood vessels demonstrate that we have always been fasci-
nated with the human body. Since that time, techniques for
studying the human body have evolved, enabling us to de-
scribe the locations and functions of body parts. Over the last
two decades, the most rapid progress has been made in the
field of molecular biology, which investigates processes at the
level of individual genes and incorporates principles of biol-
ogy, chemistry, genetics, and biochemistry. By enhancing our
understanding of molecular biology, we are learning how the
body works at the most fundamental level and revealing the
underlying basis for many disorders and diseases.
Medical science expands continuously and affects our
everyday lives. We are flooded with health information
from the popular press, news media, and advertisements.
As a result, medical terms are a part of our common lan-
guage, and we owe it to ourselves to understand them. You
will find that this course significantly expands your vocab-
ulary and your understanding of the origins and meanings
of medical terms.
This textbook will serve as an introduction to the inner work-
ings of your body, providing information about both its struc-
ture and its function. Many of the students who use this book
are preparing for careers in health-related fields—but regard-
less of your career choice, you will find the information
within these pages relevant to your future. You do, after all,
live in a human body! Being human, you most likely have a
seemingly insatiable curiosity—and few subjects arouse so
much curiosity as our own bodies. The study of anatomy and
physiology will provide answers to many questions regarding
the functioning of your body in both health and disease.
Although we will be focusing on the human body, the
principles we will learn apply to other living things as well.
Our world contains an enormous diversity of living organ-
isms that vary widely in appearance and lifestyle. One aim of
biology—the science of life—is to discover the unity and the
patterns that underlie this diversity, and thereby shed light on
what we have in common with other living things.
Animals can be classified according to their shared charac-
teristics, and birds, fish, and humans are members of a group
called the
vertebrates
, characterized by a segmented vertebral
column. The shared characteristics and organizational patterns
provide useful clues about how these animals have evolved
over time. Many of the complex structures and functions of the
human body discussed in this text have distant evolutionary
origins. When we compare the particular adaptations of hu-
man beings with those of other creatures, we find two impor-
tant principles: there are obvious structural and functional
similarities among vertebrates, and form follows function.
This chapter explores the structural and functional char-
acteristics of living things. It includes the levels of organiza-
tion that anatomical structures and physiological processes
display, and discusses
homeostasis
, the goal of physiological
regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment.
CHECKPOINT
1. Identify the oldest medical science.
2. Why is studying human anatomy and physiology
important?
See the blue Answers tab at the end of the book.
1-2
Good study strategies are
crucial for success
Completing this course successfully will require you to work
hard and often. Although you are going to spend lots of time
reading this textbook, reading alone won’t be enough—you
need to develop good study skills and strategies.
Before going to lectures and labs, read the material so that
it and the terms used by the instructor don’t come as a com-
plete surprise. During class, take notes on notebook paper
and
in your textbook, especially near the relevant illustra-
tions. You might also find it useful to record the lectures. Af-
ter class, reread the textbook while referring to your class
notes. If something doesn’t make sense, don’t be shy about
asking for help. Write yourself a note so that you will be sure
to ask your instructor about it.
1-1
Anatomy and physiology
directly affect your life
Welcome to the field of anatomy and physiology, the study of
body structures and functions. In this course, you will dis-
cover how your body works under normal and abnormal con-
ditions. This course will also be important because it serves
as the foundation for understanding all other basic life sci-
ences, and for making common sense decisions about your
own life. Basic knowledge of normal physiological function,
for example, will prove useful whenever you or a friend or rel-
ative becomes ill. Our study of anatomy and physiology will
3
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Memorization alone is not enough, and waiting until the
night before an exam to begin studying is courting disaster.
Success in an A&P course is like constructing a house—it is an
ongoing process that starts with building a solid foundation
and then advances in small steps, each of which builds on the
previous one. Using your time in lectures and labs to the fullest
will go a long way in making this course a positive experience.
Lab exercises will greatly enhance your understanding of the
topics covered in lecture, so do not consider them separate ac-
tivities but, instead, educational tools that go hand-in-hand
with what you learn in lecture. Here are some practical tips for
success in this course:
Approach your textbook differently from a novel. That is,
you might have to read it more slowly, with a critical eye to
detail, while taking notes along the way. This book was de-
signed with student-friendly resources, not only to enhance
your study, but also to ensure your success in the course.
However, you will succeed only by being an active learner and
using
these features as you work through the textbook:
•
Learning Outcomes.
The first page of every chapter
includes a list of Learning Outcomes that shows what
you should be able to do by the end of the chapter. Each
Learning Outcome corresponds to a main section in the
chapter, and the Learning Outcome and the heading of
that main section share a number (such as 1-1, 1-2, 1-3)
for easy reference. That numbering system repeats in the
Study Outline at the end of the chapter to make studying
and reviewing as straightforward as possible.
•
Illustrations and Photos.
The art program is designed to
complement the text and provide visual aids for
understanding complex topics. Figure references in the
narrative are bright green to function as placeholders to
help you return to reading after viewing a figure. Every
time you see a colored figure reference, pause and refer to
the figure. The text and art work together—you need to
integrate them as you study.
•
Pronunciation Guides.
We have provided a
pronunciation guide for each new term. When you read
the term, stop and say it aloud until you are familiar with
the sound. Afterward, use the term at every opportunity.
If you don’t use it, you are likely to forget it!
•
Checkpoint Questions.
Whenever you encounter a
Checkpoint, stop and answer the questions before going
on to the next section. If you cannot answer the
questions quickly and correctly, reread the section. Do
not go on until you understand the answers, because
each topic builds upon the previous one.
•
The A&P Top 100.
Carefully read The A&P Top 100
because these brief boxes present the core concepts,
principles, and facts that you should remember years after
your A&P course. In other words, regardless of your career
choice, the information in this feature pertains to you!
•
Tips & Tricks.
Consider the Tips & Tricks as tools to
help your memorization. They present easy analogies and
mnemonic devices to better enable you to retain
information.
•
Clinical Notes.
Think of the Clinical Notes sections as
applications to the real world. They show how what you
are reading applies to life beyond your textbook and why
learning this information is important.
•
Chain Link Icons.
Watch for the chain link icon
l
.
This icon appears when material relates to topics
•
Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions.
Ask
questions and participate in discussions.
•
Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before
going to class or lab.
You’ll understand class/lab better if
you do.
•
Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course.
There are no shortcuts. (Sorry.) You won’t get the grade
you want and the knowledge you need if you don’t put in
the time and do the work. This requires preparation
throughout the term.
•
Set up a study schedule and stick to it.
Create your
study schedule during the first week of class.
•
Do not procrastinate!
Do not do all your studying the
night before the exam! Actually STUDY the material
several times throughout the week. Marathon study
sessions are often counterproductive. Expect to push
yourself and stretch your limits.
•
Approach the information in different ways.
For
example, you might visualize the information, talk it over
with or “teach” a fellow student, or spend additional time
in lab asking questions of your lab instructor.
•
Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it
regularly.
Memorization is an important skill, and an
integral part of the course. You are going to have to
memorize all sorts of things—among them muscle
names, directional terms, and the names of bones and
brain parts. Realize that this is an important study skill,
and that the more you practice, the better you will be at
remembering terms and definitions. We will give you tips
and tricks along the way to help you keep the
information in mind.
•
As soon as you experience difficulty with the course,
seek assistance.
Do not wait until the end of the term
when it is too late to salvage your grade.
This textbook is an investment in your future; you owe it
to yourself to use it wisely. It contains significant information
that is useful beyond the bounds of this course.
4
Unit 1
Levels of Organization
presented earlier and offers specific page numbers to
facilitate review.
•
End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials.
After
completing each chapter, read the Study Outline and
work through the end-of-chapter Review Questions to
make sure that you have a solid understanding of the
chapter material. Answers to the Checkpoint Questions
(see above) and Review Questions are found in the blue
Answers tab at the end of the book.
•
Systems Overview Section.
Between Chapters 4 and 5
(the end of the four introductory chapters and the
beginning of the body system chapters), the Systems
Overview section presents each of the body systems,
including summaries of body organs and functions. This
overview of the body systems prepares you for the body
system chapters that will follow, and it is also a useful
reference as you move forward in the textbook. The
section can be easily found via the deep yellow band at
the edges of its pages.
•
System in Perspective Summaries.
The body functions as
an integrated unit rather than as a set of isolated,
independent systems. When you learn about a new body
system, such as the digestive system, try to relate it to what
you learned about another body system earlier, such as the
nervous system. The System in Perspective summaries,
which appear at the end of each set of chapters on a body
system, provide excellent, illustrated reviews of the basic
functions of each body system. You can use these to “see
the big picture” and to quiz yourself.
•
Colored Tabs.
Colored tabs are located on the edges of the
pages to make it easy for you to find your place in the
textbook. The color of the tab indicates one of the eleven
body systems, such as light brown for the integumentary
system and red for the cardiovascular system. The location
of the tab along the edge of the page indicates one of the
six units, such as the top of the page for Unit 1 and one
notch below that location for Unit 2. Chapter numbers are
printed on the tabs. Using the tabbing system, you will be
able to navigate easily through the textbook as you read
and study.
•
End-of-Book Reference Sections.
Also indicated with
easy-to-find colored tabs are four important sections at
the back of the book:
Appendix
,
Answers
,
Glossary
, and
Index
. You’ll refer regularly to each of these sections as
you move through the chapters of the book, and the
brightly colored tabs will help you get to where you want
to go in no time.
code for myA&P™, and
Martini’s Atlas of the Human Body
.
These references are called out with distinctive designs and
colors for easy integration with your studies. Here is how these
supplements can help you succeed in your course:
•
The Interactive Physiology
®
(IP) CD
contains de-
tailed animations and engaging quizzes to help you
learn the most difficult concepts in your A&P course. This
resource will help you advance beyond memorization to a
genuine understanding of complex topics. Interactive Phys-
iology icons that refer to this CD are found in the end-of-
chapter sections throughout the textbook.
•
myA&P™
is your one-stop online location
for accessing great media that will help you
increase your understanding of anatomy and physiology
and raise your A&P test scores. This website includes IP
(described above) as well as chapter quizzes, practice tests,
anatomy animations, physiology animations, histology re-
view, bone review, muscle review, flashcards with pronunci-
ations, and many other useful features.
•
Martini’s Atlas of the Human Body
is a full-color,
spiral-bound book of vivid anatomy photographs,
radiology images, and embryology summaries.
The anatomy images are directly related to the illustrations in
your textbook, and figure captions in the book will direct
you to the
Atlas
so that you can compare artistic presenta-
tions to cadaver dissections or medical scans. You can also
use the
Atlas
as a reference in the lab.
my
Some additional resources are also available to you: the
Get Ready for A&P!
paperback book and website, the
A&P Ap-
plications Manual
with more extensive clinical material, and
the
Study Guide
, which provides abundant exercises for addi-
tional practice. See descriptions of these resources in the Pref-
ace to this textbook and get in touch with the publisher if you
would like to learn more.
CHECKPOINT
3. Identify several strategies for success in this course.
4. List the resources packaged with your textbook to
assist you in learning anatomy and physiology.
See the blue Answers tab at the end of the book.
1-3
Anatomy is structure, and
physiology is function
People have always been interested in the inner workings of
the human body. The word
anatomy
has Greek roots, as do
many other anatomical terms and phrases that originated more
Your new textbook package comes with several supple-
mentary learning tools that are referenced in the chapters of
your textbook: the Interactive Physiology
®
(IP) CD, an access
5
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
than 1500 years ago.
Anatomy
, which means “a cutting open,”
is the study of internal and external structures of the body and
the physical relationships among body parts. In contrast,
physiology
, another Greek term, is the study of how living or-
ganisms perform their vital functions. Thus, someone studying
anatomy might, for example, examine how a particular muscle
attaches to the skeleton, whereas someone studying physiol-
ogy might consider how a muscle contracts or what forces a
contracting muscle exerts on the skeleton. Because you will be
studying anatomy and physiology throughout this book, it is
appropriate that we spend some time at the outset taking a
closer look at the relationships between these sciences.
Early anatomists faced serious problems in communica-
tion. Stating that a bump is “on the back,” for example, does
not give very precise information about its location. So
anatomists created maps of the human body. Prominent
anatomical structures serve as landmarks, distances are mea-
sured in centimeters or inches, and specialized directional
terms are used. In effect, anatomy uses a special language that
must be learned almost at the start of your study.
That special language, called
medical terminology
, in-
volves the use of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and combin-
ing forms to construct terms related to the body in health and
disease. Many of the anatomical and physiological terms you
will encounter in this textbook are derived from Greek or
Latin. Learning the word parts used in medical terminology
will greatly assist in the study of anatomy and physiology, and
in preparation for any health-related career.
There are four basic building blocks of medical terms.
Wo rd
roots
are the basic, meaningful parts of a term that cannot be
broken down into another term with another definition.
Prefixes
are word elements that are attached to the beginning of words
to modify their meaning but cannot stand alone.
Suffixes
are
word elements or letters added to the end of a word or word part
to form another term.
Combining forms
are independent words
or word roots that occur in combination with words, prefixes,
suffixes, or other combining forms to build a new term. The
table inside the back cover of your textbook lists commonly
used word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms.
To illustrate the concept of building medical terms, con-
sider the word
anatomy
, derived from the Greek root
anatome
,
meaning dissection. The prefix
ana-
means up, while the suffix
-tomy
means to cut. Hence,
anatomy
means to “cut up” or dis-
sect. Another commonly used term is
pathology
. Breaking this
word into its fundamental elements reveals its meaning. The
prefix
path-
refers to disease (the Greek term for disease is
pathos
), while the suffix -
ology
means “study of.” Therefore,
pathology is the study of disease.
A familiarity with Latin and Greek word roots and pat-
terns makes anatomical terms more understandable. As the
text introduces new terms, it will provide notes on pronunci-
ation and relevant word roots.
Latin and Greek terms are not the only ones that have
been imported into the anatomical vocabulary over the cen-
turies, and this vocabulary continues to expand. Many
anatomical structures and clinical conditions were initially
named after either the discoverer or, in the case of diseases,
the most famous victim. Over the last 100 years, most of these
commemorative names, or
eponyms
, have been replaced by
more precise terms. The Glossary includes a table listing the
most important eponyms and related historical details.
It is important for scientists throughout the world to use the
same name for each body structure, so in 1998, two scientific
organizations—the Federative Committee on Anatomical Ter-
minology and the 56 member associations of the International
Associations of Anatomists—published
International Anatomi-
cal Terminology (Terminologia Anatomica,
or
TA )
. Although
Latin continues to be the language of anatomy, this reference
provides an English equivalent term for each anatomical struc-
ture. The
TA
serves as a worldwide official standard of anatom-
ical vocabulary, and we have used it as our standard in preparing
this text.
CHECKPOINT
5. Define anatomy.
6. Define physiology.
7. Describe medical terminology.
8. Define eponym.
9. Name the book that serves as the international
standard for anatomical vocabulary.
See the blue Answers tab at the end of the book.
1-4
Anatomy and physiology
are closely integrated
Anatomy and physiology are closely integrated, both theoret-
ically and practically. Anatomical information provides clues
about functions, and physiological mechanisms can be ex-
plained only in terms of the underlying anatomy. This is a
very important concept:
All specific functions are performed by
specific structures
. The link between structure and function is
always present, but not always understood. For example, al-
though the anatomy of the heart was clearly described in the
15th century, almost 200 years passed before the heart’s
pumping action was demonstrated.
Anatomists and physiologists approach the relationship be-
tween structure and function from different perspectives. To un-
derstand the difference, consider a simple nonbiological
analogy. Suppose that an anatomist and a physiologist were
asked to examine a pickup truck and report their findings. The
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